A Literature Review: Effective Reading Comprehension Instructional Strategies

I am posting a recent Literature Review I completed for an Educational Research class.  Certainly, I am not posting this to punish you, or inflict pain as you read it, which is literally what I went through as I spent 15+ hours writing it, in  one weekend! While not opinions of my own (until the last 2 paragraphs) which is an indicative characteristic of a Lit. Review, it is filled with some surprising and beneficial suggestions for any reading teacher:

INTRODUCTION

There is much consensus among educational professionals in regards to preparing students to meet the literacy demands of the 21^st century (Harvey & Goudvis, 2012).  At the forefront of literacy education, is the idea that students should be able to construct meaning from a text, usually by performing several tasks such recalling information, developing mental images, making connections to background knowledge, predicting, questioning and so on (Brown, 2008, Hess, 2008, Keene et. al., 2011).  In fact, researchers conclude that the most important thing about reading is comprehension and that the ultimate goal of proficient literacy is comprehension (Pressley, 2006). 

The means in which to accomplish such a feat have been the subject of interest for educators throughout the ages.  In order to meet the demands of critical areas of literacy, and more specifically comprehension instruction, it is crucial for teachers to pinpoint specific and effective strategies for use in the classroom (Harvey & Goudvis, 2012, Keene et. al., 2011).  This literature review will focus on methods that should be employed in classrooms to ensure optimal reading comprehension.  Such methods include:  explicit, teacher-led instruction, the use of graphic-organizers to aid in reading comprehension, and encouraging independent reading practice.  As the literature will suggest, students who are constantly exposed to concentrated encounters in which the teacher is explicitly modeling strategies such as understanding purposes of text features, use of graphic organizers and eventually allowing guided and independent reading experiences, will become empowered and purposeful readers (Bluestein, 2010; Fealy, 2010; Moss, 2005).

While there seems to be much documented about what teachers should do, not as much is known about how teachers should actually implement strategies or how much daily class time should be devoted to teaching reading comprehension (Connor, Morrison, & Petrella, 2004).  This may certainly be a topic for a future literature review and/or study. 

TEACHING READING COMPREHENSION THROUGH EXPLICIT, TEACHER-LED INSTRUCTION

Perhaps the most beneficial way for students to learn to comprehend text is through explicit instruction of reading strategies, in which teachers directly and intentionally instruct students on how to strategically monitor their understanding and comprehension of a reading text (Ness, 2011). Simply put, students must be exposed to and explicitly instructed in the strategies required to grapple with and ultimately comprehend content area and informational text (Fealy, 2010; Moss, 2005). 

For purpose of this literature review, it may be helpful to distinguish between explicit and implicit instruction.  Explicit instruction deals primarily with teaching students to extract meaning from texts through specific strategies such as summarizing, inferring, making predictions, identifying the main idea, and so on (Conner et. al., 2004).  Reading activities that do not directly focus on specific comprehension strategies, but rather address students’ abilities to decode and allow for independent practice of reading are implicit in nature.  Implicit activities may also include student-managed independent or group work. 

Oftentimes, authors such as Beers (2002) may refer to the generic term ‘showing, not telling’ to direct attention to the idea of what explicit instruction actually looks like in a classroom.  She states that “we sometimes confuse explaining to students what is happening in a text with teaching students how to comprehend a test." (p. 40).  The key to ‘showing’, involves the words explicitly and directly.  Teachers must explicitly and directly instruct students by using teacher think-alouds, modeling, guided instruction, direct instruction, scaffolding, and any other method that will ensure students have ample opportunities to learn, develop and successfully implement strategies while reading independently (Block, Parris, & Whiteley, 2008). 

To be sure, there is ample literature and research to suggest that explicit, teacher-directed instruction is most beneficial to ensuring student comprehension of reading texts (Ness, 2011, Conner et al., 2008).  In one study performed by Conner et al., (2008), they concluded that third grade students with initial low reading scores achieved greater growth on standardized tests in classrooms where more time was spent on teacher managed reading comprehension instructional activities, rather than student managed activities.  Furthermore, Block, Parris, & Whiteley (2008) demonstrated in their research that when primary grade students receive explicit, teacher-led comprehension instruction, their performances on measures of literal, inferential, and metacognitive comprehension increase (as cited in Ness, 2011, p. 101).  Andreassen & Braten (2010) also found in a study that by using explicit instructional methods with struggling readers in an intervention group, after five months, these students increased their strategic competence and comprehension performance relative to their peers. 

Explicit instruction is a vital part of any reading comprehension program.  Furthermore, teachers may choose to use a variety of reading genres and texts such as basal texts, chapter books, poetry, nonfiction articles, and so on, to employ these methods.

TEACHING READING COMPREHENSION THROUGH USE OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

Visual representation of text, in the use of graphic organizers, has been a long-standing reading comprehension strategy among teachers (Fealy, 2010; Manoli & Papadopoulou, 2012).  Organizing information graphically involves taking the traditional, linear view of text and visually displaying it in a variety of ways depending on the relationship and nature of the text.  Serving many purposes, the graphic organizer not only represents information visually and organizes schema, but Vaughn & Edmunds (2006) attest to its usefulness in organizing key concepts and unknown vocabulary in a text. Research shows the many benefits of using graphic organizers to facilitate reading comprehension, adding to the growing body of evidence to support use of graphic organizers in the classroom (Fealy, 2010; Kirylo & Millet, 2000). 

From a historical perspective, graphic organizers originated from early cognitive theorists such as Barron and Ausebel (Kirylo & Millet, 2000; Manoli &Papadopoulou, 2012).  These theorists supported the idea that new information is learned when built upon or integrated into already existing schemata.  Thus, the purpose of graphic organizers is to “activate students' prior knowledge and relate the new material to the previously stored information providing optimal anchorage and rendering the new material more familiar and meaningful” (Manoli & Papadopoulou, 2012, p. 348).

Typically, graphic organizers come in a variety of forms, the most common being: story maps, semantic maps, concept maps, tree diagrams, and venn diagrams, among others.  The genre and structure of the reading text determines the type graphic organizer that should be used. Readers use graphic organizers to help identify and better comprehend text structure in regards to problem/solution, cause/effect, compare/contrast, to name a few. 

Regardless of the graphic organizer used, research has shown the benefits are universal. In her study, Fealy (2010), found that students were able to learn new concepts more easily, determine important information in a text, and eventually successfully use graphic organizers independently.  On a similar note, Kirylo & Millet (2000), concluded that the use graphic organizers is a practical and dynamic method of fostering conceptual relationships in a text, ultimately leading to a “facilitation of comprehension” (p. 179).  Overall, research supports the idea that graphic organizers boost awareness of text structure, enhance students’ summarizing abilities, and facilitate identification of higher level organization, all critical factors in comprehension (Manoli & Papadopoulou, 2012; Oliver, 2009). 

DEVELOPING READING COMPREHENSION THROUGH INDEPENDENT READING EXPERIENCES

The use of strategies is a crucial element to any successful reading comprehension instructional program, however strategies alone may not be sufficient for a successful reading experience (Hess, 2008).  Implementing an independent reading time, in which students can practice strategies and increase personal motivation to read may be highly effective in promoting overall reading comprehension success (Hess, 2008; Kirzimi, 2010).  If the goal of reading is for students to authentically comprehend and ultimately become independent readers and learners, then they must be given time to practice independently (Kirylo & Millet, 2000).

Although considered implicit in nature, independent reading indirectly allows students to strengthen their reading comprehension skills (Connor, et al., 2004).  In addition, because student motivation generally does not increase through use of explicit instruction, motivation can be improved through use of independent silent reading time in the classroom (Andreassen & Braten 2010, Kirzimi, 2010). Hess (2008) concludes that “a key foundation” of the comprehension instructional process is the “gradual release of responsibility” in which the teacher gradually transfers the responsibility of a reading strategy from himself or herself to the student (p. 99).  Calkins (1997) put it directly when she quoted 2^nd grade teacher Hannah Foster, “If our efforts to teach reading don't affect what happens during independent reading, they probably don't affect kids' lives as readers, [and] my whole goal is to help kids invent richly literate lives for themselves."

Studies have shown however, that sustained silent reading time is not always effective for struggling readers, unless teachers engage these students with teacher guided reading and discussion (Bryan, Fawson, & Ruetzel, 2003).  Oftentimes, struggling readers do not have a home climate that fosters independent reading, therefore, motivation to read independently at school may take engaging encounters with a teacher and/or adult to nudge these students towards independent reading.  

Suffice it say that authentic reading experiences, both guided and independent are a vital part of building lifelong, engaged readers who can comprehend reading texts of all genres and types. 

SUMMARY

In order to meet the demands of current literacy expectations of students, teachers must be prepared to offer authentic, engaging and effective instruction.  Teachers should be equipped with a proven repertoire of strategies that not only ensure the facilitation of reading comprehension, but also foster independent readers who can successfully comprehend all genres of texts. 

While there may be endless reading comprehension strategies available for teachers to choose from, suffice it say that effective instruction should focus on explicit and direct, teacher-led instruction, facilitation of graphic organizers and an ultimate release of responsibility to students to independently practice strategies during a sustained reading time. 

Explicit instruction should involve direct, teacher-taught lessons which focus on any given strategy such as summarizing, identifying main idea, comparing and contrasting, etc.  As opposed to simply explaining to students how to comprehend a text, the teacher actually models specific steps and actions required of the reader to ensure comprehension, and guides students to do the same. 

To aid in the direct and explicit teacher-led instruction, educators may choose to use graphic organizers which will greatly benefit the reader.  Depending on the type of reading selection and relationships needed to be identified within the text, a teacher can choose from various types of graphic organizers.  Helping students activate prior activate, is a key benefit of graphic organizers as students then document and organize new information visually, which can then be meaningfully integrated into students’ existing schema. 

Many professional educators agree that a fundamental element of any successful reading program must include the transfer of strategies from teacher to student, practiced and indicated during the independent reading process.  Teachers should allow students ample opportunities to engage in authentic, independent reading experiences.  Strategies taught during the teacher-led instruction should help foster successful student-led reading experiences.  Teachers should keep in mind however, that they may need to step-in during sustained reading time to ensure all readers are engaged and successfully implementing comprehension strategies. 

CONCLUSION

While teaching reading comprehension may forever be an integral part of any curriculum, teachers will just as surely receive a new crop of students each year with varying reading levels and abilities.  The strategies discussed in the literature review can be viewed as universal tools to ensure better comprehension for all students, but teachers should be always be prepared to cater strategies to individual needs and challenges of students.   Furthermore, while personalities and capabilities of students may differ, the same can be said of teachers.  How teachers deliver reading comprehension strategies may be a topic of further interest.  Do boisterous, energetic teachers find more success with these strategies as compared with teachers who are more reserved?  Does teachers’ use of technology effect how these strategies are received and successfully implemented?  Certainly there are ample questions that can continue to be researched in regards to reading comprehension instruction.  May these questions continue to be investigated and answered in the quest to ensure reading comprehension for all. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

REFERENCES

Andreassen, R., & Broten, I. (. (2010). Implementation and effects of explicit reading comprehension instruction in fifth-grade classrooms. . Learning and Instruction, 21, 520-537.

Beers, K. (2002). When kids can't read what teachers do:  A guide for 6-12 teachers. 

     Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann

Block, C. C., Parris, S. R., Reed, K. L., Whiteley, C. S., & Cleveland, M. D. (2009). Instructional approaches that significantly increase reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 262-281.

Bluestein, N.A. (2010). Unlocking text features for determining importance in expository text: A

strategy for struggling readers. Reading Teacher, 63(7), 597-600.

Bryan, G., Fawson, P., & Reutzel, D. R. (2003). Sustained silent reading: Exploring the value of literature discussion with three non‐engaged readers. Reading Research and Instruction, 43(1), 47-73.

Calkins, L. (1997). Get real about reading. Instructor, 107(8), 37.

Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., & Petrella, J. N. (2004). Effective reading comprehension instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(4), 682-689.

Fealy, E. M. (2010). Explicit instruction of graphic organizers as an informational text reading comprehension strategy: Third-grade students' strategies and perceptions. Proquest Llc, Ph. D. Dissertation (Fordham University)

Harvey, S. and Goodvis, A. (2007). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension for understanding

     and comprehension. (2^nd ed.). Portland, Maine: Stenhouse.

Keene, E. O., Zimmerman, S., Miller, D., Bennett, S., Blauman, L., Hutchins, C., … McGregor, T.,

       (2011). Comprehension going forward: Where we are and what's next.

       Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Kirmizi, F. S. (2010). Relationship between reading comprehension strategy use and daily reading time. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 4752-4756.

Kirylo, J. D., & Millet, C. P. (2000). Graphic organizers: An integral component to facilitate comprehension during basal reading instruction. Reading Improvement, 37(4), 179.

Manoli, P., & Papadopoulou, M. (2012). Graphic organizers as a reading strategy: Research findings and issues. Creative Education, 3(3), p. 348.

Moss, B. (2005). Making a case and a place for effective content area literacy instruction in the

   elementary grades. The Reading Teacher, 59, 46-55.

 

 

Ness, M. (January-March 2011). Explicit reading comprehension in elementary classrooms: Teacher use of reading comprehension strategies. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 25(1), 98.

Oliver, K. (2009). An investigation of concept mapping to improve the reading comprehension

     of science texts. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 18, 402-414.    

Vaughn, S., & Edmunds, M. (2006). Reading comprehension for older students. Intervention in School & Clinic, 41(3), 131-137.

 

Discussion #1 Digging Deeper

Discussion #1:  “Digging Deeper”

1.        How can we help children understand more deeply?

2.       How can we know when they comprehend deeply?

This past week I focused on reading Chapter One in Comprehension Going Forward (Keene, E., et. al., 2011). 

So this is what my fifth grade classroom looks like in regards to reading and reading instruction:  a major intersection of diverging streets and paths.  I have 24 students with reading levels ranging from second to twelfth grade.  This year we are implementing a new reading series, complete with lots of bells and whistles.  On top of that my team is trying to use novels to teach reading (something I am a huge fan of and quite enjoy).  At the moment we are reading My Brother Sam is Dead.  In addition, I feel the overwhelming cloud of Common Core looming overhead and don’t feel quite sure about how to instruct in this method of “teaching”.  To add to all of this, I am desperately trying to find my groove amidst all this:  how to structure my lessons, how to effectively utilize centers, and how to improve comprehension.

So, this is what my classroom has looked like in the past:  whole group reading of main passages and teacher modeling of think alouds, whole group vocabulary instruction and daily review, whole group grammar instruction and center practice, centers focused around specific skill instruction (main idea, author’s purpose, cause and effect, etc.), computer practice, worksheets, etc.

So, this is what I want my classroom to look like: students participating in authentic reading experiences that improve their comprehension skills.  I don’t necessarily want to teach students on a skill-by-skill basis (meaning teaching to find the author’s purpose with this passage, and teaching how to compare and contrast with that passage, etc).  I’ve taught that way for years and don’t feel like I’ve created successful students who can dig deeper and really understand what they’re reading.  I also want to be a teacher who truly knows how to build successful readers, lifelong readers who can utilize strategies to help them in life, not just to pass a test.  To be honest, I don’t feel like I honestly know how to do and I certainly don’t want to be reliant on a reading series to build readers.  I want to know what works!  How can I get students to dig deeper. 

This chapter, “Comprehension Instruction Grows Up” was a good place to start.  It documented the experience of a middle school teacher conversing with fellow peers about how to help students dig deeper beyond the “making connections” strategy.  The teacher desired for her students to come into the world of people who read because what they read actually changes them (2011).  She wanted them to “read with a different outlook—not trying to make a connection, but exploring how your connections really help you understand more effectively” (2011, p. 15). 

Her plan:

1.        Read a short piece to her students

2.       Ask them to reread the piece and take notes on how they understand the text: 
-Think about what they think about as they read

-Think about what they DO to help themselves understand

       3.  Share/Discuss what they wrote down with a partner

      4.  Share with group what partner wrote

**Key question she asked students as they were sharing:  “How did these connections/actions help you understand more deeply?” (2011, 19). 

 

So, I took this idea and really tried to implement and make it my own this week and this is what happened:

Day 1, I told the students that my job was to help them understand texts more deeply, not just to pass a test, but to equip them with strategies to make them lifelong, successful readers.  I told them to think about what they were thinking about (metacognition) as I read a chapter from My Brother Sam is Dead.  When I was done, I asked them to write on a sticky note one thing they thought about as I read.  I asked them to place their sticky notes on the board under the title “In My Mind”.  As I read through their responses, I noticed some patterns among their notes and I started to put them into categories.  Some made: 

                Predictions about what might eventually happen in the book
              Connections to something in their own life, another book they read, or a movie they had seen
              Empathy for the characters as to how they were feeling
              Visions of what it would have looked like.  I called this “Movie in my Mind”
              Wonder or questions about certain events or ideas

I continued this exercise in small groups through the week and added some elements.  For example, in my center I chose to read a difficult text with my students, “The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere” by Henry Woodsworth Longfellow.  I prefaced it with an exercise I learned previously.  I wrote down small phrases from the text on index card and gave each member of the small group a card and asked them to think about what the phrase meant to them.  Then we traded cards until each person had read all 5-6 cards.  We then shared our thoughts about what the phrases might mean, or what we thought about as we read them.  I then read part of the poem about Paul Revere to the students and asked them to write down what happened in their minds.  Some students wrote feverishly (I was transfixed by this!).  Others didn’t know what to write and I had to coax and encourage them.  I heard some students exclaim, “Oh!” like a lightbulb had gone off (this was music to my ears).  After talking about what we wrote (I shared first), I had some students make more connections as I was sharing (I excitedly told them this is something they could write down!).  We eventually wrote down on our notes “What I do” meaning, what did the students actually do to help them understand as they were reading.  We came up with:  took notes, reread, discussed.  All of these things helped them develop a deeper understanding of what they read. 

So, I continue this exercise with my students, but am not sure about the outcomes yet.  By this I mean, will this enable them and equip them with strategies to help them to gain more meaningful reading experiences?  Will this help them eventually cross over to help them perform better on a test? 

I honestly want to get to the bottom of what actually works to help develop successful readers.  I have a lot to work with and tall order to fill.  Currently, I am spending 30 minutes solely with a group of students who scored 1s and 2s on last year’s FCAT.  For the most part, they are low readers.  But what motivates me at this time is thinking that this is my chance to truly make a difference.  Will it mean higher test scores?  Maybe, maybe not.  But what I do hope to accomplish with this group, is equipping them with strategies and an increased brain ability to more fully comprehend what they read.  I do plan to extensively try out these newfound strategies with them. 

What I definitely don’t want to be doing this year is the same things I’ve done before.  I want to find strategies that work and I only feel like I have scratched the surface, but I’m going to keep on digging!

 

Resources:

Keene, E. O., Zimmerman, S., Miller, D., Bennett, S., Blauman, L., Hutchins, C., .… McGregor, T.,
           (2011). Comprehension going forward: Where we are and what's next. Portsmouth, NH:
           Heinemann.